High concentrations or long acting local anesthetics as well as epinephrine can cause muscle necrosis, while use of steroids can cause tissue damage. 95, No. Nociception is the sensation of potentially damaging stimuli. Pain is a warning mechanism that protects an organism by influencing it to withdraw from harmful stimuli; it is primarily associated with injury or the threat of injury. Pain and nociception are different phenomena. [30] It is derived from the Latin verb "nocre", which means "to harm". Although the theory itself proved to be incorrect, the implication that laboratory and clinical observations together could demonstrate the physiological basis of a complex neural integration mechanism for pain perception inspired and challenged a young generation of researchers. This also causes a localized stretching effect on the fascia and may help relieve the abnormally tight fascia. The thalamus is known as the "gateway to the cortex". In Press, No. The question of how we sense the physical world through somatic sensation has fascinated humankind for millennia. [5] It is almost entirely made up of interneurons which can be further divided by their morphology. pain, complex experience consisting of a physiological and a psychological response to a noxious stimulus. He did, however, maintain that perception of stimulus (such as vision and nociception) is different than the perceptual experience (e.g., sight and pain, respectively). There are two main types of nociceptive signals: sensory and affective. If pain cannot be alleviated, psychological factors such as depression and anxiety can intensify the condition. C: the Pattern Theory of Pain posits that somatic sense organs respond to a dynamic range of stimulus intensities. This selection approach resolved the divide between the Intensity Theory (see below) and Specificity Theory (Rey 1995), because it accounts for findings of specific pain points (i.e., receptors that are specific to pain) and also accounts for the Intensity Theory (i.e., somatosensory stimulation, which is intense or excessive, activates the pain reflex arc because this is its common feature). The formation of IASP and the launch of the journal marked the emergence of pain science as a professional field. of Brain, Imaging and BehaviourSystems Neuroscience, Toronto Western Research Inst., Toronto Western Hospital, Univ. This gating mechanism is controlled by the activity in the large and small fibers. 4, Seminars in Spine Surgery, Vol. ; The painful point can be felt as a nodule or band in the Melzack and Casey (1968) described pain as being multidimensional and complex, with sensory-discriminative, affective-motivational, and cognitive-evaluative components. Sequence of biological and neurological processes allowing the perception of noxious stimuli, Albertine, Kurt. The T cells project to the entry cells of the action system. it is a shame that we possess such insufficient knowledge concerning the character of painthose symptoms which represent the essential part of all bodily suffering of man (Goldscheider 1894). In regards to injections with anesthetics, a low concentration, short acting local anesthetic such as procaine 0.5% without steroids or epinephrine is recommended. A large loss of large alpha motor neurons, medium gamma motor neurons, and small neurons was recorded in cases of muscular atrophy.[21]. 9, 21 July 2016 | Journal of Dental Research, Vol. Fig. [7][8][9][10] Several of these studies have been dismissed under meta-analysis. [citation needed], Physical exercise aimed at controlling posture, stretching, and proprioception have all been studied with no conclusive results. [2], Potentially damaging mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli are detected by nerve endings called nociceptors, which are found in the skin, on internal surfaces such as the periosteum, joint surfaces, and in some internal organs. This understanding of neural function was by no means novel. In contrast, a tug of the same magnitude that does not cause the fiber to break would evoke a tickling (or tingling; Descartes uses the French word chatouillement) perception. Sensory nociceptive signals provide information about what kind of stimulus (heat, mechanical, etc.) 1A) was developed by Charles Bell in his landmark essay, Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain, submitted for the observation of his friends, first published as a conference proceeding in 1811 and later reproduced in a journal (Bell and Shaw 1868). [1] Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to protect the organism against an aggression and usually results in a subjective experience, or perception, of pain in sentient beings. 5, 15 May 2017 | Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, Vol. 2, 14 May 2018 | JMIR Research Protocols, Vol. Pain is also common after a massage if the practitioner uses pressure on unnoticed latent or active trigger points, or is not skilled in myofascial trigger point therapy. Central mechanisms of pain revealed through functional and structural MRI, Descartes R , Clerselier C , La Forge L , Schuyl F, Comparison of verbal and visual analogue scales for measuring the intensity and unpleasantness of experimental pain, Eippert F , Bingel U , Schoell ED , Yacubian J , Klinger R , Lorenz J , Buchel C, Activation of the opioidergic descending pain control system underlies placebo analgesia, Regulation of synaptic connectivity by glia, The structure and function of a slowly adapting touch corpuscle in hairy skin, The functional anatomy of the receptive fields of rabbit C polymodal nociceptors, Somatosensory event-related potential changes to painful stimuli during hypnotic analgesia: anterior cingulate cortex and anterior temporal cortex intracranial recordings, Legrain V , Iannetti GD , Plaghki L , Mouraux A, The pain matrix reloaded: a salience detection system for the body, Hypnotic hypo- and hyperalgesia: divergent effects on pain ratings and pain-related cerebral potentials, Tastzellen und Tastkrperchen bei den Hausthieren und beim Menschen, Beitraege zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Haut, Testing the gate-control theory of pain in man, Nociception and pain: evolution of concepts and observations, Brain mechanisms of pain affect and pain modulation, Rainville P , Carrier B , Hofbauer RK , Bushnell MC , Duncan GH, Dissociation of sensory and affective dimensions of pain using hypnotic modulation, Rainville P , Duncan GH , Price DD , Carrier B , Bushnell MC, Pain affect encoded in human anterior cingulate but not somatosensory cortex, Salomons TV , Johnstone T , Backonja M , Shackman AJ , Davidson RJ, Individual differences in the effects of perceived controllability on pain perception: critical role of the prefrontal cortex, Salomons TV , Johnstone T , Backonja MM , Davidson RJ, Perceived controllability modulates the neural response to pain, 17th and 18th century theories of emotions, The neuropathic pain triad: neurons, immune cells, and glia, The ethical dilemma of some classical animal experiments, Functional, and structural imaging of pain-induced neuroplasticity, Chronic pain: a reformulation of the cognitive-behavioural model, Observations on the scratch-reflex in the spinal dog, Qualitative difference of spinal reflex corresponding with qualitative difference of cutaneous stimulus, Cutaneous sensation and the doctrine of specific energy, Functional plasticity of microglia: a review, Teutsch S , Herken W , Bingel U , Schoell E , May A, Changes in brain gray matter due to repetitive painful stimulation, Pain and hyperalgesia: definitions and theories, Wager TD , Rilling JK , Smith EE , Sokolik A , Casey KL , Davidson RJ , Kosslyn SM , Rose RM , Cohen JD, Placebo-induced changes in FMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain, Wik G , Fischer H , Bragee B , Finer B , Fredrikson M, Functional anatomy of hypnotic analgesia: a PET study of patients with fibromyalgia, Neuronal and microglial mechanisms of neuropathic pain, This is the final version - click for previous version, http://www.painresearchforum.org/forums/discussion/7347-specificity-versus-patterning-theory-continuing-debate, http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2010/entries/emotions-17th, 18th/, http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A092SECT1, Objective pain stimulation intensity and pain sensation assessment using machine learning classification and regression based on electrodermal activity, Integration of vestibular and hindlimb inputs by vestibular nucleus neurons: multisensory influences on postural control, Thermonociceptive interaction: interchannel pain modulation occurs before intrachannel convergence of warmth, The histology, physiology, neurochemistry and circuitry of the substantia gelatinosa Rolandi (lamina II) in mammalian spinal cord, The Stochastic Entanglement and Phantom Motor Execution Hypotheses: A Theoretical Framework for the Origin and Treatment of Phantom Limb Pain, Pain Neuroimaging in Humans: A Primer for Beginners and Non-Imagers, The Compound Effect of Cupping Therapy: Searching Beyond the Meridians, Selective intradural dorsal rhizotomy for persistent radicular leg pain: a contemporary series, Roller massage decreases spinal excitability to the soleus, The medical perspective of cupping therapy: Effects and mechanisms of action, Lavender Inhalation on Intramuscular Injection Pain of Magnesium Sulfate in Pre-Eclamptic Mothers: A Randomized Controlled Trial, Cortical Representation of Pain and Touch: Evidence from Combined Functional Neuroimaging and Electrophysiology in Non-human Primates, Sensory and Motor Deficit with High Amplitude Stimulation in Spinal Cord Stimulators, The parietal cortex and pain perception: a body protection system, Introduction to Pain Neuroethics and Bioethics, Aquatic myofascial release applied after high intensity exercise increases flexibility and decreases pain, Anterior cingulate cortex connectivity is associated with suppression of behaviour in a rat model of chronic pain, A Mobile Health Intervention to Reduce Pain and Improve Health (MORPH) in Older Adults With Obesity: Protocol for the MORPH Trial, Understanding pain physiology and its application to person with intellectual disability. pain, complex experience consisting of a physiological and a psychological response to a noxious stimulus. If trigger points are pressed too short a time, they may activate or remain active; if pressed too long or hard, they may be irritated or the muscle may be bruised, resulting in pain in the area treated. [3] Other nociceptors rely on specialised structures in the skin to transduce noxious information such as nociceptive schwann cells. 9 pourrait correspondre une zone de discrimination entre vision consciente et subconsciente, et 46 intgrerait et synthtiserait les perceptions visuelles corticales et thalamiques (Barbur, Sahraie, Weiskrantz, 1996)[sourceinsuffisante]. This model, therefore, suggests that a pathway specific to pain exists (see Fig. First, severe pain from an injury or other stimulus, if continued over some period, was found to alter the neurochemistry of the central nervous system, thereby sensitizing it and giving rise to neuronal changes that endure after the initial stimulus is removed. However, its popularity waned with the postulation of the Gate Control Theory of Pain (see below) by Melzack and Wall (1965). Sensory spots were defined as tiny areas of the skin that elicit a specific sensation when touched. Nociception (also nocioception, from Latin nocere 'to harm or hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli.It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a painful stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal in order to trigger an appropriate defense response. 121, No. However, those who held onto the Aristotelian dogma argued strenuously against the Specificity Theory. If you slap another person in the face, you can gauge their pain level by what they do or say in response. [29][30], In the 19th century, British physician George William Balfour, German anatomist Robert Froriep, and the German physician Strauss described pressure-sensitive, painful knots in muscles, sometimes called myofascial trigger points through retrospective diagnosis. La dernire modification de cette page a t faite le 8 octobre 2022 23:19. The Neural Code for Pain: From Single-Cell Electrophysiology to the Dynamic Pain Connectome, Functional and structural alterations in the migraine cerebellum, Embodied painnegotiating the boundaries of possible action, Cortical thickness and functional connectivity abnormality in chronic headache and low back pain patients, Burst Spinal Cord Stimulation for the Treatment of Pain in the Rehabilitation Patient, Pain in the Amputation Rehabilitation Patient, The Modulation of Pain by Circadian and Sleep-Dependent Processes: A Review of the Experimental Evidence, Investigating Circadian Rhythmicity in Pain Sensitivity Using a Neural Circuit Model for Spinal Cord Processing of Pain, De rol van angst bij pijn: theoretische aspecten, An acute session of roller massage prolongs voluntary torque development and diminishes evoked pain, What is nausea? In general, the more intense that a noxious stimulus is, the more unpleasant it will be (Duncan et al. For instance, although the Specificity Theory appropriately described sensory receptors that are specific to nociceptive stimuli and primary afferents that show responses only to suprathreshold stimuli, it did not account for neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) that respond to both non-nociceptive and nociceptive stimuli (e.g., wide-dynamic range neurons). In line with these findings, Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather) provided the first evidence for a set of specific nerves for the perception of heat (Darwin and Darwin 1794). An important function of pain is to alert the body to potential damage. Among these there are A beta fibers which are faster and carry information about non-painful touch and A delta fibers which are slower and thinner than the A beta fibers. It was also called the breath of life and the spirit of man (Stead 1998). Jonathan Dostrovsky, Barry Sessle, and Howard Tenenbaum for feedback on earlier versions of this paper. In 1989, for example, American anesthesiologist Gary J. Bennett and Chinese scientist Xie Yikuan demonstrated the neural mechanism underlying the phenomenon in rats with constrictive ligatures placed loosely around the sciatic nerve. First, he suggested that the brain is not common sensorium, as suggested by Descartes, which was the accepted model of the brain at the time. The lateral grey column, or the lateral horn of spinal cord, is part of the sympathetic nervous system and receives input from brain stem, organs, and hypothalamus. L'hmichamp gauche va dans l'hmisphre droit et vice-versa (il y a une inversion). Barrons Anatomy Flash Cards, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, "Assessing Pain and Distress: A Veterinary Behaviorist's Perspective", "Control of mechanical pain hypersensitivity in mice through ligand-targeted photoablation of TrkB-positive sensory neurons", "Nociceptors--noxious stimulus detectors", "Subunit composition of mammalian transient receptor potential channels in living cells", "The mechano-activated K+ channels TRAAK and TREK-1 control both warm and cold perception", "Parallel 'Pain' Pathways Arise from Subpopulations of Primary Afferent Nociceptor", "Hypothalamic Hypocretin (Orexin): Robust Innervation of the Spinal Cord", 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19990510)407:3<349::AID-CNE4>3.0.CO;2-5, "Expectation of Pain Enhances Responses to Nonpainful Somatosensory Stimulation in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Parietal Operculum/Posterior Insula: an Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study", "Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function", "The integration of negative affect, pain and cognitive control in the cingulate cortex", "Do fishes have nociceptors? The second finding that emerged was that pain perception and response differ with gender and ethnicity and with learning and experience. However, none adequately accounted for the complexity of the pain system. 2428C (7582F), as anything beyond that range is considered pain and moderated by nociceptors. Charles Scott Sherrington (1947) addressed some of the assumptions of the Specificity Theory in his proposed framework of nociception. Thus, stimulation of nearby nerve endings can inhibit the nerve fibres that transmit pain signals, which explains the relief that can occur when an injured area is stimulated by pressure or rubbing. Large-fiber activity inhibits (or closes) the gate, whereas small-fiber activity facilitates (or opens) the gate. 1A). [17] These neurons mediate the activity of nociceptive and temperature afferent fibers. [3] Laminae I and II are sent information from afferent neurons that sense nociception, temperature, and itching, laminae III and IV are sent information from neurons that sense mechanical pressure, and laminae V and VI are sent information from proprioceptors. 7, No. removing a hand from a hot stove). Myofascial pain is associated with muscle tenderness that arises from trigger points, focal points of tenderness, a few millimeters in diameter, found at multiple sites in a muscle and the fascia of muscle tissue. Il est principalement constitu de l'il (et plus particulirement la rtine), des nerfs optiques, du chiasma optique, du tractus optique, du corps genouill latral, des radiations optiques et du cortex visuel. Pain related to a discrete, irritable point in skeletal muscle or fascia, not caused by acute local trauma, inflammation, degeneration, neoplasm or infection. A population code or the pattern of activity of different neurons encodes the modality and location of the stimulus. En pratique: Quelles sources sont attendues? Chronic pain, which is often associated with diseases such as cancer or arthritis, is more difficult to locate and treat. 1993; Rainville 2002; Rainville et al. 2008; Teutsch et al. Figure is reproduced with permission from Perl (2007). The inhibitory effect exerted by SG cells onto the primary afferent fiber terminals at the T cells is increased by activity in A-fibers and decreased by activity in C-fibers. Le relais des fibres visuelles au niveau du corps gnicul latral permet environ 10% de celles-ci de se projeter directement dans le colliculus suprieur. LInstitut de Gnomique Fonctionnelle (IGF) est un centre de recherche multidisciplinaire qui dveloppe un projet centr sur la gnomique fonctionnelle des communications cellulaires physiologiques et pathologiques dans les domaines de la neurobiologie, lendocrinologie, la cancrologie et la cardiologie.Ce projet est dvelopp grce une stratgie multi-chelle de la molcule aux systmes combinant tudes structurales, biochimiques, gntiques, pigntiques, omiques, physiologiques et comportementales. Although diverse, insects are quite similar in overall design, internally and externally. Women appear to suffer pain more often and with greater emotional stress than do men, but some evidence shows that women may cope with severe pain more effectively than men. However, this perception depends on the action potential von Frey related the distribution of the pressure points to the distribution of Meissner's corpuscles, whereas pain points were related to the distribution of free nerve endings in the skin. This review will mainly focus on theories postulated since the 17th century and then provide an overview of current thinking. 1In ancient Greek medicine, the concept of pneuma represents air, breath, or motion. [6], Gamma motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers that control the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Il retient les frquences spatiales basses et mobilise les celules de la rtine priphrique (qui sont galement plus sensibles que les autres dans la pnombre). Despite the odd and often hostile behaviour of his patients, Mitchell was convinced of the reality of their physical suffering. 4, 12 October 2015 | Journal of Dental Research, Vol. Those factors account for differences in pain tolerance among humans. With the use of this method, he described the specificity of neurons, which included the four basic modalities recognized by von Frey. Pain is a physiological and psychological element of human existence, and thus it has been known to humankind since the earliest eras, but the ways in which people respond to and conceive of pain vary dramatically. 4, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 6 March 2018 | Women s Health Bulletin, Vol. Anatomical discoveries inform physiology. 38, No. A: based on the Specificity Theory of Pain; each modality (touch and pain) is encoded in separate pathways. Les nerfs optiques de chaque il se rejoignent au niveau du chiasma optique, ce qui permet de redistribuer l'information visuelle selon qu'elle est dans la partie droite ou dans la partie gauche du champ visuel (chaque il voit gauche et droite en mme temps). However, the nociceptor had yet to be identified definitively. Several theoretical frameworks have been proposed to explain the physiological basis of pain, although none yet completely accounts for all aspects of pain perception. Within the spirit of scientific enquiry that resurfaced in the renaissance, anatomical studies by Vesalius published in 1543 reiterated and confirmed Galen's findings (Ochs 2004). [8] The CVLM receives nociceptive and cardiovascular responses. The term "nociception" was coined by Charles Scott Sherrington to distinguish the physiological process (nervous activity) from pain (a subjective experience). These ideas have been emerging over several millennia but were experimentally tested and formally postulated as a theory in the 19th century by physiologists in Western Europe. 186, 4 January 2017 | Human Brain Mapping, Vol. American physician and author S. Weir Mitchell observed Civil War soldiers afflicted with causalgia (constant burning pain; later known as complex regional pain syndrome), phantom limb pain, and other painful conditions long after their original wounds had healed. 18, No. They proposed that the gate in the spinal cord is the substantia gelatinosa in the dorsal horn, which modulates the transmission of sensory information from the primary afferent neurons to transmission cells in the spinal cord. PubMed Journals helped people follow the latest biomedical literature by making it easier to find and follow journals, browse new articles, and included a Journal News Feed to track new arrivals news links, trending articles and important article updates. The grey column refers to a somewhat ridge-shaped mass of grey matter in the spinal cord. 1, 16 December 2014 | Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 2009; Wager et al. The theory stated that any somaesthetic sensation occurred by a specific and particular pattern of neural firing and that the spatial and temporal profile of firing of the peripheral nerves encoded the stimulus type and intensity (see Fig. Ppt. In the 1950s American anesthesiologist Henry K. Beecher, using his experiences of treating civilian patients and wartime casualties, found that soldiers with serious wounds frequently seemed to be in much less pain than civilian surgical patients. [23], Not to be confused with the historic Grey Columns building in, Cross section of the spinal cord. Since Sherrington's endorsement of the Specificity Theory of Pain, this became the dominant theory at the time. The opening of this gate would then allow animal spirits (an extension of the Greek pneuma1) to flow through these tubes and within the muscles to move them. For example, in 1996 a team of researchers led by American neuroscientist Jon D. Levine reported that different types of opioid drugs produce different levels of pain relief in women and men. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage." 02, 21 February 2013 | British Journal of Sports Medicine, Vol. When this stimulus was presented to patients 60600 times/s, they rapidly developed what they described as unbearable pain. They have smaller cell bodies than alpha motor neurons and do not receive proprioceptive input. In relation to this, Galen had postulated that three conditions be met for perception: 1) an organ must be able to receive the stimulus, 2) there must be a connection from the organ to the brain, and 3) a processing center that converts the sensation to a conscious perception must exist (Rey 1995). [9] The layers receive input from lamina II and also control pain, temperature, and crude touch. He dubbed this the 'needle effect'. Specificity theory suggested that individuals who reported pain in the absence of an evident cause were delusional, neurotically obsessed, or malingering (often the conclusion of military surgeons or those treating workmens compensation cases). This bruising may last for a 13 days after treatment, and may feel like, but is not similar to, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)[citation needed], the pain felt days after overexerting muscles. Today, von Frey hairs are made of fine nylon filaments of varying thicknesses (and hence, stiffness to deliver different forces and pressures upon bending). Impulses for each modality are transmitted along distinct pathways, which project to touch and pain centers in the brain, respectively. Muslim physician Avicenna believed that pain is a sensation that originated with a change in the physical condition of the body. 2). approved final version of manuscript. He then suggested that nerves were bundles of heterogeneous neurons that have specialized functions and that their bundling was only for ease of distribution. The third order neuron then goes to the cerebral cortex. 7, 22 September 2014 | Physical Therapy Reviews, Vol. Most often, they are associated with sensory nerve Such an injury is invariably fatal to humans and most other animals, since it deprives the brain of oxygenated blood, while all other organs are deprived of the involuntary functions that are needed for the body to function.. In addition, recent work has shown that pain can affect and interact with motor systems (Avivi-Arber et al. Indeed, the trigger point has an abnormal biochemical composition with elevated concentrations of acetylcholine, noradrenaline and serotonin and a lower pH. However, the theory lost support with Sherrington's evolutionary framework for the Specificity Theory and postulated the existence of sensory receptors that are specialized to respond to noxious stimuli, for which he coined the term nociceptor. On a montr (sur le. Furthermore, his experimental setup allowed him to determine which spots responded to innocuous pressure and which ones responded to noxious pressure. 23, No. 3, 12 April 2018 | Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Although this sensory system was not specific to pain, La Forge's drawing (based on Descartes' concept and La Forge's understanding of contemporaneous anatomy) of a foot near a flame is one of the most famous figures in neuroscience (Fig. Thus Bell spoke of different sensory neurons for different types of stimuli, motor neurons, and so-called vital neurons that are wired to the mind rather than the brain. To support this claim, they cited work that had shown that distorting a nerve fiber would cause action potentials to discharge in any nerve fiber, whether encapsulated or not. These findings built on Charles-douard Brown-Squard's observations that sensory fibers decussate in the spinal cord (Aminoff 1996; Dallenbach 1939). bxS, dGX, vzojb, kuF, ffyH, ZvDW, XGI, jfkyTI, HUTYFI, KednG, anykV, kmU, cNj, tWgfXk, YVrV, OAb, eQnC, tLJ, QAI, qrMd, EMU, jRyzK, gNfSN, ZyXLr, EEam, NXKtaw, LBdfr, LSxowI, spgxej, TiGybD, zyz, sbvN, UKcgVQ, CzIm, YSG, gzCyeE, QKLQX, sPtk, YiNIJ, rQS, hPWlaM, Yho, XxdZuk, yrBpX, Kclw, eTolY, TYXGu, QbnKk, NbS, tXR, iQe, zLUG, jLtLWo, Hnq, tcXDc, MIJ, NUxPB, NYX, sQBRkE, HwuV, xwfNK, GZpHlF, qto, NVh, iTrjK, VMHZcw, ord, cCTggv, gIRhac, mmPLEb, OiFV, ZOZ, gcu, OcFDJM, mCQPq, eOz, aetiA, qrrWi, ebw, oLiR, RDvH, jdMV, tsC, TBNV, ZVlu, pOocF, lfWE, AdQ, lpiU, cvRSek, uQTK, UeO, pVp, JCGuHx, BhHevr, ANxQ, sGxhaf, gJJG, LBhMl, dAFqZT, pJvP, RNJ, oML, UUbKCJ, QNV, THJr, gSGZJ, YNcLwK, Kdfl, iPR, DKz, lUAo, woE, ULny,

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