the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Nayak, P. & Tiwari, A. Biodegradation of polythene and plastic by the help of microbial tools: A recent approach. Roohi, Bano K, Kuddus M, Zaheer MR, Zia Q, Khan MF, Ashraf GM, Gupta A, Aliev G. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. Annual plastic disposal was estimated as 11,000,000 tons in Turkey9. Epub 2022 Jul 5. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:1073310741. Herein LDPE and LLDPE films were exposed to gamma rays followed by thermal treatment at 150C and 90C for 7 d, respectively. Cite this article. Such kind of deteriorative actions were not seen in the microalga untreated control LDPE sheet (Fig. PubMed Most of these bacterial strains possess the ability to deteriorate surface and/or form a biofilm on PE. Roth, C.; Wei, R.; Oeser, T.; Then, J.; Fllner, C.; Zimmermann, W.; Strter, N. Structural and functional studies on a thermostable polyethylene terephthalate degrading hydrolase from Thermobifida fusca. Maximal biodegradation was obtained in combination with photo-oxidation, which showed that carbonyl residues formed by photo-oxidation play a role in biodegradation. Product: Kollisolv PEG 400 (ID no. Molecular Characterization of Low-Density Polyethene (LDPE) Degrading Bacteria and Fungi from Dandora Dumpsite, Nairobi, Kenya. After attack (or dwell) in the amorphous regions, microorganisms will start degrading the crystalline region and increase in the proportion of larger crystals [2, 105]. Blank samples were prepared: one blank with solvent (CHCl3) and one blank with untreated HDPE. The injector temperature was 280C and the transfer line was heated to the same temperature. Prior to SEM analysis, the sample could ionize by ion sputter on a metal stub for 20min. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.12.014, Donlan RM (2002) Biofilms: microbial life on surfaces. Therefore, these biodegradable plastics have not attained widespread attention globally18. These include manganese peroxidase (MnP, EC 1.11.1.13), lignin peroxidases (LiP, EC 1.11.1.14), and laccases (EC 1.10.3.2.) Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Curr. Hence, TiO2-incorporated polymer films efficiently absorb UV light. Mechanism of abiotic and biotic degradation of polyethylene. Substances present in the blank samples were considered irrelevant for our purposes and were not included. Usha et al. 5). Al-Zahrani RM, Al-Otibi F, Marraiki N, Alharbi RI, Aldehaish HA. 8). Curr Biol 27:744745, Wei R, Zimmermann W (2017) Microbial enzymes for the recycling of recalcitrant petroleum-based plastics: how far are we? Palmisano, A. C. & Pettigrew, C. A. Biodegradability of plastics. CAS The variability of results in the degradation of polyethylene may also be related to the bacterial species used in the experiments. Microbes from variety of sources such as polyethylene buried in the soil, marine water, plastic dumping sites and rhizosphere soil of mangroves are reported to be a potential source for plastic degradation. 18, 7387 (1987). The purified DNA was prepared according to the company's requirements. The cells are scarcely constricted at the septum, terminal cell much curved and pointed like a sickle. Stud. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Nucl Instrum Methods B 236:513520, Fontanella S, Bonhomme S, Koutny M, Husarova L, Brusson JM, Courdavault JP, Pitteri S, Samuel G, Pichon G, Lemaire J, Delort A (2010) Comparison of the biodegradability of various polyethylene films containing pro-oxidant additives. Disadvantages of GI pipes. These studies utilized crude or partially purified enzymes and required long treatment time. The cooperative action of abiotic factors and microorganisms causes fragmentation of the bulk polymer to increase accessible surfaces for biodegradation. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:1941, Article The . However, in India, annual plastic waste was estimated as 5.6 million metric tons. Microalgal culture without LDPE treatment was used as a negative control. This species has been recorded in Africa, Asia and Europe and differs from Uronema confervicolum by having curved and pointed apical cell. A copper dependent laccase from R. ruber strain C208 was reported to degrade UV pretreated PE films [93]. Biodeterior. (A) Three-dimensional view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet of 5m2 area; (B) Three-dimensional view of U. africanum treated LDPE sheet; (C) Topographical view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet; (D) Topographical view of U. africanum treated LDPE sheet with erosions on its surface. Sci. Light in weight and easy to handle. Microalgae are photoautotrophic microbes reported to colonize on the surface of polyethylene sheets submerged in wastewater21,24. Polym Degrad Stab 93:19171922. 18, 19), 10m2 (Figs. Starch nanoparticles (SNPs) are synthesized by different precipitation techniques using corn starch, and SNP films are prepared by the evaporation casting method. 65, 97104 (2004). Abstract Exhausted studies on the degradation of polyethylene has been carried out in order to overcome the environmental problems associated . SG and YY written the review and equally contributed for this manuscript; HGH and JHA revised the manuscript and share the corresponding authorship. Informa PLC's registered office is 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG. See this image and copyright information in PMC. 3BD). After 30days of incubation, the LDPE sheets were taken out from the culture flasks and analyzed for its biodegradation by microalga. Biotech 7:332, Balasubramanian V, Natarajan K, Hemambika B, Ramesh N, Sumathi CS, Kottaimuthu R, Rajesh Kannan V (2010) High-density polyethylene (HDPE)-degrading potential bacteria from marine ecosystem of Gulf of Mannar India. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0250-6, Dey AS, Bose H, Mohapatra B, Sar P (2020) Biodegradation of unpretreated low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by Stenotrophomonas Sp. Therefore, we used two Gram-positive and thermophilic bacteria, called strain ST3 and ST6, which were identified by morphological, biochemical, physiological, and molecular analyses, to assess the growth and biodegradation potential of two different sized (50 and 150 m) polyethylene particles. The distribution and sizes of precipitated SNPs after synthesizing are discovered by these methods as well. Thus, tests with labeled PS indicated the degradation of PS into 13CO2 and incorporation into lipids [120]. 3(2), 4347 (2014). Surface charge, hydrophobicity and electrostatic forces are the unique properties of EPS which binds to the substrata27. In another study, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain isolated from composed plastic was studied for assessing deterioration effect of thermo-irradiation pretreatment. Versatile properties of plastics, such as diverse application, convenience, non-degradability, and low price, have led to the replacement of natural materials and common use as household items since 1960. In contrast, the lowest dry weight loss was found in samples containing Pseudomonas tuomurensis with an average dry weight loss of 0.34%. IOSR J. Pharm. Means with same letters are not significantly different using Fishers Protected Least Significant test at (P<0.05). Central Pollution Control Board Ministry of Environment and Forest, Delhi, India, pp. - 138.201.188.187. Ramanathan, K. R. Ulotrichales (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1964). CAS 2022 Sep 30;27(19):6450. doi: 10.3390/molecules27196450. degradation by bacteria 2 Graph 4.5 DSC thermogram of untreated MPs & bacteria 1 and 2 treated MPs . Hence most of the biodegradation studies on PE have been carried out using substrate peroxidation [86]. According to a report by Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 2014, mulching waste vinyl reduced the movement of essential materials in soil such as air, moisture, and nutrients and the mobility of soil organisms including earthworms [60]. With their durability, weight, flexibility and availability, plastics have taken over the world. Polym Degrad Stab 21:237250, Kathiresan K (2003) Polythene and plastic-degrading microbes in an Indian mangrove soil. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometric analysis (GCMS) and Fourier transform infra-red spectrometry (FT-IR) are the determining factor for biodegradation of polyethylene35. Growth curve of four bacterial isolates during degradation studies for 21 days of culture period. Polym Degrad Stab 91:14951503, Krueger MC, Harms H, Schlosser D (2015) Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Environ Pollut 231:15521559. Hence, the biological agent utilizes the synthetic polymer as a substrate for carbon source, thus the end-product would be microbial biomass. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.12.005, Kale SK, Deshmukh AG, Dudhare MS, Patil VB (2015) Microbial degradation of plastic: a review. 177200 ISBN 978-3-540-40769-0, Shahnawaz M, Sangale MK, Ade AB (2016) Bacteria-based polythene degradation products: GC-MS analysis and toxicity testing. Sci. This early degradation left thousands with implants that could prematurely fracture or crack. Microscopically magnified, washed LDPE sheet. Rhizosphere of Avicennia marina (Forsk.) SEM and AFM analyses are commonly employed to investigate surface topography of PE films during biodegradation. Thermo-UV pretreatment was used to induce partial photolysis of the PE film and to simulate weathering of PE that occurs in nature (e.g., PE used for soil mulching or polyhouse cover). PE-fed mealworms showed 40.18.5% reduction in the molecular weights of egested polymer. The level of biodegradation of LDPE sheets with bacterial and fungal inoculums from different sampling points of Dandora dumpsite was evaluated under laboratory conditions. PubMed Central https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.012, Shah AA, Hasan F, Hameed A, Ahmed S (2008) biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. for providing samples of virgin polyethylene and SUEZ CZ a.s. for assistance in collecting plastic samples from the landfill. The degradation of polyethylene leads to the production of various by-products, which depend on the nature and conditions of the degradation process. Appl Surf Sci 254:18251829, Zheng Y, Yanful EK, Bassi AS (2005) A review of plastic waste biodegradation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. Study on biodegradation of PE (LDPE) treated with pro-oxidant, manganese stearate followed by UV irradiation and treatment with Aspergillus oryzae resulted in 62 and 51%, decrease in percentage elongation and tensile strength, respectively. Biodegradation of PE is restricted by the absence of hydrolysable functional groups in the backbone [56, 86]. Chemosphere 191:979989, Yang Y, Yang J, Wu W, Zhao J, Song Y, Gao L, Yang R, Jiang L (2015) Biodegradation and mineralization of polystyrene by plastic eating mealworms: part 1. Mikrobiol. J Appl Polym Sci 56:17891796, Ozdemir M, Floros JD (2004) Active food packaging technologies. This led to a decrease in soil quality, physiological disorders in plant growth such as seed germination and root growth, which would which would decrease agricultural productivity in the end. Plastic (polyethylene) pollution is a severe cause of deterioration of a healthy environment. Figure1 showing topo geographical view of the sample collection site, Kallukuttai Lake, located near Taramani Railway Station, Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India with longitude and latitude positions 125841.70 North and 801408.57 East respectively. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1254912562, Barnes DK, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. The conidiophores are branched with bottle-shaped phialides at the tip of the conidiophores producing spores while d is a photo of 5-day old fungal growth. Environ Pollut 225:469480. Biodeterior. The effect of microbial colonization on the surface of PE was studied by monitoring seven different characteristics with respect to the degree of biodegradation of the polymer: functional groups on the surface, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, crystallinity, molecular weight distribution, surface topography, mechanical properties, and mass balance (Table3). Curr Sci 90:2021, Sen SK, Raut S (2015) Microbial degradation of low density polyethylene (LDPE): a review. ISSN 2045-2322 (online). [26] isolated A. niger from soils of PE wastes landfills using mineral medium with PE powder as a sole carbon source. Therefore, prior treatment is required before biodegradation, which are sunlight and oxygen treatment induces brittleness and loss of tensile strength which makes the plastic into smaller pieces20. Without the ability to use plastics, life would be much more complicated nowadays. Biodegradation can occur under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and can be influenced by many factors, such as the density of the material, thickness, and chemical structure [14]. Part 2-Chain-Chlorinated Polystyrene Polymer Degradation and Stability 18 213 . [34] was observed after aerobic incubation at 30C for 100days. PE samples were treated in a QUV accelerated weathering tester developed by QLAB, Homestead, FL. Indian J. Biotechnol. Cult. Plastic in the Environ, IntechOpen, Gu JD (2003) Microbiological deterioration and degradation of synthetic polymeric materials: recent research advances. CAS Gram staining was performed to determine the number, shape, and configuration of the cell wall of all isolated cultures. Gilan, I., Hadar, Y. This is the reason why researchers are working to develop methods to break down plastics in an environmentally friendly degradation. (A) 10 magnification; (B) 40 magnification and (C) 100 magnification. Similarly, up to 70% degradation of a pre-oxidized high molecular weight PE sample has been reported after 15 d of treatment with P. chrysosporium strain MTCC-787. Based on the modern phylogenetic system of classification, the systematic position of the isolated microalgal species U. africanum Borge was retrieved from algaebase database30. PubMed J Biolog Chem 289:2096020969, Santo M, Weitsman R, Sivan A (2013) The role of the copper-binding enzyme - laccase - in the biodegradation of polyethylene by the actinomycete Rhodococcus ruber. J Coast Life Med 5:474479. The wash bottles according to Drechsel were dipped in a water bath (two-thirds) with the water temperature 300.5C. R.K.G. Iron and titanium complexes as a source of radicals initiate photo-oxidation, while manganese and cobalt catalyze peroxidation without light. 8(4), 135144 (2017). 72, 346352. Epub 2022 Sep 29. . Sci. Copyright 2022. Many conventional methods of polyethylene degradation include UV photooxidation, thermal oxidation, incineration, chemical oxidation and landfill are being practiced. In the next section, we discuss the materials and methods used. indigenous to the Niger Delta Mangrove Swamp. Brevibaccillus borstelensis also degraded the CH2 backbone of non-irradiated polyethylene. The LiP activity in the concentrated culture supernatants of lignocellulose degrading Streptomyces species has been reported to responsible for degradation of a heat treated PE [81]. eCollection 2018. Indian J. Biotechnol. 2022 Nov 14;8(11):e11562. 364(1526), 21532166 (2009). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:19851998, Article Commonly practiced plastic waste disposal methods are incineration, land-filling and recycling. Because plants capture and sequester carbon dioxide (CO 2) during their growth, these biopolymers can help to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases [ 9 ]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.05.031, Park SY, Kim CG (2019) Biodegradation of micro-polyethylene particles by bacterial colonization of a mixed microbial consortium isolated from a landfill site. Thus, the genus of the isolated microalga was identified as Uronema. I recently talked with some U.K. students who believe a solution to reducing plastic waste is to plant polystyrene. In 2005, researchers from Department of Biotechnology Engineering, at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Israel, published a paper in the Journal of Applied Microbiology regarding the biodegradation of polyethylene. Microorganisms isolated from the landfill are capable of high-density polyethylene degradation. Larvae of Galleria mellonella and Plodia interpunctella, have been reported to degrade LDPE without pretreatment [13, 63]. Therefore, an attempt has been made in our present study to identify a potential microalga for biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE). A polyethylene sheet showed only partial degradation and negligible weight loss when kept in moist soil for 1232years [77]. Stud. It is widely used for packaging food and non-food items, manufacturing trays and plastic bags. c has a simple conidiophore terminated by flask shaped phialides where spores are produced in chains at the tip end characteristic of genus. PubMed They will then use a synthetic biology technique to isolate the genes involved to create a genetically engineered machine cell that can degrade polystyrene. as a landmark for polythene degrading bacteria. Cyanobacteria, Phormidium lucidum and Oscillatoria subbrevis have been reported to degrade polyethylene within 6weeks of incubation33. PubMed Central volume4, Articlenumber:302 (2022) Int J Pharm Biol Arch 3:11901196. [7] reported that HDPE after thermal treatment was degraded by Klebsiella pneumoniae. Springer Nature. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Thankam thomas and Sandhyarani et al. LDPE was prepared by the high pressure polymerization of ethylene. Very least works were reported on the biodegradation of LDPE by photosynthetic algae. The extent of degradation was estimated by calculating weight loss and functional group changes on the surface of polymer by FTIR. The ultrasonic treatment lasted for two hours at 55C. After 30min of rest, 5ml of the infusion was aseptically transferred with a pipette into a sterile Erlenmayer flask containing 100ml of LB broth (10g of tryptone, 5g of yeast extract (Oxoid CZ, Brno, Czech Republic), 5g of NaCl (PENTA s.r.o., Prague, Czech Republic) in 1 L of distilled water). The non-recycled plastics left in the agricultural environment without any management will be getting worse due to a decrease in international oil prices and increase of plastic waste. 250ml of sterile mineral salt medium according to Vimala and Mathew [24], was prepared. The scanning electron microscopic images clearly reveals the presence of erosions, abrasions, grooves and ridges on the surface of the microalga treated LDPE sheet. [8]. The analysis was performed using Pegasus 4D gas chromatograph and mass spectroscopy instrument (LECO Corporation, USA). Resour Conserv Recycl 4:241251, Yamada-Onodera K, Mukumoto H, Katsuyaya Y, Saiganji A, Tani Y (2001) Degradation of polyethylene by a fungus, Penicillium simplicissimum YK. It is also utilized for coating on paper, textiles, and other plastics [97]. Recently, a mass balance study showed that PE-fed mealworms of Tenebrio molitor converted 49.01.4% of the ingested PE into CO2 [120]. A small contact angle with water indicates a high hydrophilicity of the oxidized PE surface [91, 105]. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 138:8791. However, a medium without organic carbon proved to be insufficient, as the viability of the microorganisms decreased within a few days of the start of the experiment [42]. Biodegradation of high molecular weight polymers are reported in some microbes with the help of extracellular enzymes, which can degrade the main polymeric chain and results in low molecular weight products with modified mechanical properties, which can be easily deal by microbial degradation16,17. Curr Opin Biotechnol 12:242247, Sivan A (2011) New perspectives in plastic biodegradation. Polymer 36:30753083, Albertsson AC, Karlsson S (1990) The influence of biotic and abiotic environments on the degradation of polyethylene. Structures of different types of polyethylene, Statistics on the treatment of waste vinyl from agriculture (Top) and types of agricultural waste vinyl (Bottom) in Korea from 2004 to 2017 (adopted from Environmental Statistics Portal [25], Ministry of Environment of Korea, Republic of Korea 2010) (http://stat.me.go.kr), Ministry of Environment of Korea). 10). Exposure to UV-B light initiates MB molecule degradation and significantly enhances MB bleaching process. Polyethylene degradation by microbes alone has been done worldwide, to achieve approximately 20% degradation in 30 days period. To study the surface erosion and biodegradation of LDPE sheet by biological treatment of the selected microalga, atomic force microscopy was employed. Bhaskar, P. V. & Bhosle, N. B. Microbial extracellular polysaccharides and their role in marine biogeochemical processes. It has stronger intermolecular forces and greater tensile strength than LDPE. Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most abundant plastic wastes which accumulates in marine and terrestrial environments. The amount of waste plastics has been increasing every year in Korea (Fig. Different types of plastic are being used for the manufacturing of geomembranes, plastic bags . 1. However, plastics are intractable to biodegradation in the natural environment. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 103:141146, Karlsson S, Ljungquist O, Albertsson A (1988) Biodegradation of polyethylene and the influence of surfactants. Emerg Infect Dis 8:881890. The pipes are less durable. The most common microalga colonizing the LDPE sheet was isolated, sub-cultured and maintained in the algal culture room based on streak plate method. Observations that E. coli bacteria inactivation ratio caused by combination of TiO 2 and UV light has synergistic . Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine To name a few, genera of Comamonas, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, Staphylococcus, Streptomyces, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Micrococcus have been experimentally shown to degrade polyethylene [36]. J Appl Polym Sci 83:305314, Webb HK, Arnott J, Crawford RJ, Ivanova EP (2013) Plastic degradation and its environmental implications with special reference to poly(ethylene terephthalate). The structural and molecular characterization of the degraded microplastic includes the analysis of functional groups, elemental composition, cracks and surface erosion, oxygen consumption rate,. https://doi.org/10.47277/JETT/9(1)157, Domb AJ, Kost J, Wiseman DM (1997) Handbook of biodegradable polymers; Harwood academic publishers: Amsterdam, ISBN 978-90-5702-153-4, Parada AE, Needham DM, Fuhrman JA (2016) Every base matters: assessing small subunit rrna primers for marine microbiomes with mock communities, time series and global field samples: primers for marine microbiome studies. Because of its physicochemical resistance and stability, plastics are a threat to all ecosystems. Nova acta Regiae Societatis scientiarum Upsaliensis, Series IV 14, 1188 (1949). They isolated from soil a thermophilic bacterium Brevibaccillus borstelensis strain, which utilized low-density polyethylene as the sole carbon source and degraded it. In adding to this, the configuration of abrasions found similar in size with the radial disc-like structure of the algae (2030m). The DNeasy UltraClean Microbial Kit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany) was used to isolate DNA. In recent years, microbes from different environments were found to degrade plastics and suggested their capability to degrade plastics under varying environmental conditions. Despite a planetary emergency, plastics research and funding lag behind climate change, and the paper advocates an integrated approach. 3, we present the results we obtained in the degradation of plastics under laboratory conditions, including the analyses of the culture medium to find typical products of plastics biodegradation. Incubation of the LDPE sheets was done for sixteen weeks at 37C and 28C for bacteria and fungi respectively in a shaker incubator. In the liquid medium 248 of 442 compounds were identified. On the other hand, degradation by Pseudomonas tuomurensis is 0.3%. Of all the bacterial isolates tested, the degradation of polyethylene by Bacillus cereus is the highest, 1.78%, based on weight loss. Otake, Y., Kobayashi, T., Asabe, H., Murakami, N. & Ono, K. Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and urea formaldehyde resin buried under soil for over 32 years. Bookshelf The samples were then cultivated at 30C0.5C for 72h. The suspensions were then cultivated on LB agar (13g of Nutrient Broth and 20g of agar (Oxoid CZ, Brno, Czech Republic) in 1 L of distilled water) and Actinomycete Isolation agar (HiMedia, Brno, Czech Republic) at 300.5C for 48h. Cross streaks of 26selected colonies were made. Microbes such as bacteria, fungi and algae are involved in polyethylene degradation in its natural habitat. . The dry weight loss was determined according to Eq. Biodegradation of polyethylene by microalgae is an ecofriendly and cost-effectively viable option rather than conventional methods of degradation22. Single-bonded hydrocarbons predominated in the media; in contrast, numerous double-bonded hydrocarbons were observed in the organic matter around the surface of HDPE. Trans. Formation of the radial disc-like structure is one of the unique characteristic feature of the microalga Uronema africanum to tightly hold the substrate. Two syringe membrane filters, pore size 0.2m, diameter 33mm (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) were attached to the tubing to protect the bottles from contamination from the environment. Skariyachan S, Setlur AS, Naik SY, Naik AA, Usharani M, Vasist KS. 2(3), 187189 (2012). Appl. At the end of the experiments, the weight loss of HDPE was determined. faecalis 2 and R. ruber gt 1 and the effective removal of nitriles and products of their degradation from the reaction medium. Size exclusion chromatography and time of flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) analysis gives an idea about molecular weight distribution of the PE after biodegradation. Google Scholar, Bastioli C (2005) Handbook of biodegradable polymers. This study was financially supported from Institutional funds for the development of the research organization TGM WRI, p.r.i., within the framework of the internal grant No. Orhan, Y. eCollection 2022 Nov. Kim SH, Lee JW, Kim JS, Lee W, Park MS, Lim YW. FSM-5 after 60 d of incubation. [37]. Vierh. Sharma, M., Dubey, A. Blank samples were also prepared to verify the method. The microalga treated LDPE sheet was subjected to analyze under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Bioscience 42, 680685 (1992). Sci. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. that the heterotrophic population of microbes in polythene and plastics, bacterial counts was recorded up to 62.71x104 and 56.52x104, the fungal count ranged from 44.32and x102 . Get ready for a science lesson. Biofilm formation on the surface of the polymers [14, 34, 38, 54, 101, 110] and penetration of hyphal structures [44, 83, 113] have been generally observed after incubation with microbes. For example, Shahnawaz et al. Polym Degrad Stab 92:12191226, Ferreira LM, Falco AN, Gil MH (2005) Modification of LDPE molecular structure by gamma irradiation for bio applications. CAS Whereas, the configuration of ridges and grooves were found similar with the filamentous nature of the microalga (1015m width). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.043, Ren L, Men L, Zhang Z, Guan F, Tian J, Wang B, Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhang W (2019) Biodegradation of Polyethylene by Enterobacter Sp. The biodegradation of high-density polyethylene is a slow process. Analysis of the 16S rDNA and 18S rDNA sequences for bacteria and fungi respectively showed that bacteria belonging to genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Cellulosimicrobium, Lysinibacillus and fungi of genus Aspergillus were implicated as polyethylene degraders. Therefore, it very clear that there are huge differences in both the surface topography roughness and voltage deflection between the control (microalgae untreated LDPE sheet), and sample (U. africanum treated LDPE sheet). Correspondence to Epub 2017 Feb 10. Since the 1950s, demand for plastics has increased in all industries [3]. FT-IR spectra of polyethylene sheet from sample E4, 1 with fungal inoculum of, Fig 10. 549557 ISBN 978-0-470-87286-4. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 65:451459. In this review, we described the effect of pretreatment and additives for enhancing biodegradability of PE and summarized recent studies on biodegradation of PE by various bacteria, fungi, and moth worms along with gut microorganisms from worms. Generally, the amorphous region is easily accessible and degraded by microorganisms, resulting in an initial increase in crystallinity [5, 44, 83]. Phycol. But, the major crisis of plastic accumulation due to landfills cause expose of unwanted synthetic chemicals to healthy ecosystem and ingestion of plastics in the gut of animals1. Thompson, R. C., Moore, C. J., Vom Saal, F. S. & Swan, S. H. Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends. Microbial degradation is one of the safest and environment friendly process to Expand PDF Isolation of Oxo-degradable Polyethylene Degrading-Bacteria of Benowo Landfill Soil Surabaya 26, 6879 (2013). Curr. Sci Rep 11, 17233 (2021). Texas Publ. The biodegradation of recalcitrant PE has been investigated by many researchers [28, 40, 56, 62, 98, 100, 127]. The experiment was performed in sterile, clear 500ml gas wash bottles according to Drechsel. Rao G M, Komath M and Raichur A M 2004 Plasma surface modification of polystyrene and polyethylene Appl. Article Table1 summarizes bacterial strains associated with PE biodegradation. In each experiment control flask containing only medium and HDPE was included. Efficient biodegradation of low-density polyethylene by cyanobacteria isolated from submerged polyethylene surface in domestic sewage water. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. Gas chromatography spectrum of control sample (without LDPE sheet). Degradation of nitriles by mixed biofilms of nitrile-hydrolyzing bacteria Alcaligenes faecalis 2 and Rhodococcus ruber gt 1 grown on basalt and carbon carriers, in a submerged packed-bed reactor was studied. 2022 Oct;33(5):477-487. doi: 10.1007/s10532-022-09993-y. 20, 21), and 25m2 (Figs. Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic?. Appl Environ Microbiol 57:678685, Liu EK, He WQ, Yan CR (2014) White revolution to white pollution-agricultural plastic film mulch in China. AlkB family alkane hydroxylases (AH) (EC 1.14.15.3) can degrade hydrocarbon oligomers by terminal or sub-terminal oxidation [89]. 2.2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-1669(00)00206-8, https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000164, https://doi.org/10.1179/2055035915Y.0000000002, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0250-6. Genus Aspergillus, Bacillus and Brevibacillus were confirmed to be good candidates for Low Density Poly Ethene bio-degradation. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 64:530536, Artham T, Sudhakar M, Venkatesan R, Madhavan Nair C, Murty KVGK, Doble M (2009) Biofouling and stability of synthetic polymers in seawater. 56, 17891796 (1995). For analysis of organic matter developed around the surface of the HDPE during the test, 50mg of PE and 10ml of CHCl3 were mixed in a 60ml glass vial. Whereas, in microalga treated LDPE sheet, functional groups such as Carboxylic acids (OH stretch at 3291.09cm1); Esters or saturated aliphatic (C=O stretch at 1745.03cm1); Alkenes (C=C stretch at 1646.53cm1); Nitro compounds (NO asymmetric stretch at 1545.2cm1); Aliphatic amines (CN stretch at 1017.32cm1) and Alkynes (CCH: CH Bend at 667.31cm1) are present additional than the control LDPE sheet (Fig. After drying, HDPE particles were washed in 2% sodium dodecyl sulfate solution and then again in distilled water. Each mean weight represents the average of three replicates SE. Ford, T. & Mitchell, R. The ecology of microbial corrosion. The pretreated PE film was tested for biodegradation and biofilm formation by Rhodococcus ruber (C208). However, in our case, the GCMS results clearly indicates the presence of hydrocarbons in the U. africanum treated sample (supernatant) when compared to control (microalga untreated supernatant). Fujisawa et al. A thermophilic bacterium, for example, is able to degrade PES at 50 C [10]. The bar graph showing differences in Area Roughness average (Sa), Roughness peak height (Sp), and Roughness pit height (Sv), comparatively between the control (untreated) and the U. africanum treated LDPE sheets of 25m2 area. 7, 922 (2008). Cultivation was performed at300.5C for 1624h (LB agar) or 26h (Actinomycete Isolation agar). Studies with Cyanidium caldarium, an anomalously pigmented chlorophyte. The biodegradation of PE involves use of microbes or microbial communities that modify and consume the polymer as a source of energy leading to changes in its physico-chemical properties such as weight loss, structural deterioration, and eventually carbon fixation as a biomass [86, 97]. After 30days of incubation, the LDPE sheet was fully colonized by microalga and visualized like green hair-like structures protrude from the LDPE sheet (Fig. Atomic force microscopic results of microalga U. africanum treated LDPE sheet of 25m2 area: (A) Topography of the surface (Line fit); (B) Voltage deflection (Line fit); (C) Topography with mean fit; and (D) Voltage deflection with mean fit. % mean weight reduction of the 30 micron and 40 micron polyethylene sheets, Fig 6. Similarly, most prominent structural changes were observed by FT-IR while LDPE degradation by a fungus Aspergillus clavatus38. Extremely high weight loss of HDPE strips (up to 60%) after 120days of incubation of thermophilic bacterial consortia at 55C was detected by Skariyachan et al. Indian J Microbiol, 2012; 3: 411419. The images showing groove and ridges region on the surface of Uronema africanum treated LDPE sheet of different microscopical studies, such grooves and ridges were formed by the microalgal filaments; (A) Dark field microscopy; (B) Light microscopy; (C,D) SEM image of grooves and ridges formed by the microalga; (E) AFMtopography of the region where grooves and ridges were found; (F) AFMtopography3D view of the region where grooves and ridges were found. 51, 199202 (1968). Resour Conserv Recycl 55:893910. All above mentioned experiments were done with low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This was probably caused by mediums evaporation. Adv Polym Sci Technol Int J 4:2832, Sowmya HV, Ramalingappa Krishnappa M, Thippeswamy B (2015) Degradation of polyethylene by Penicillium simplicissimum isolated from local dumpsite of shivamogga district. Appl Environ Microbiol 85:114, Deguchi T, Kitaoka Y, Kakezawa M, Nishida T (1998) Purification and characterization of a nylon-degrading enzyme. Two bacterial isolates, namely PE2 and PE3 have been obtained from the soil samples. Ibiene, A. In general, samples with species isolated from the 23years old landfill layer (sampling point No. Polym Bull 77:14171432, Favaro SL, Rubira AF, Muniz EC, Radovanovic E (2007) Surface modification of HDPE, PP, and PET films with KMnO4/HCl solutions. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. It has been described that UV pretreatment can influence the performance of the experiment as UV light can act as an initiator of oxidation which promotes biodegradation. Part of However, the same PE film treated with a partially purified laccase and a MnP from P. simplicissimum showed negligible weight loss [103]. Anudurga, G., Krishnamoorthy, S. & Abraham, J. Microbial degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by Aspergillus clavatus strain JASK1 isolated from landfill soil. [35] used a feeding solution containing glucose and yeast extract every 48h to maintain microbial activity. Furthermore, the configuration of the groove formed by the microalga correspondingly similar with the filamentous structure of the microalga U. africanum. . Microbial enzymes capable of degrading lignin polymer containing oxidizable CC bonds [35, 106] have been involved in the biodegradation of PE [56, 86]. The assignment of specific species to our isolated pure cultures was based on the highest identity from the GenBank database, Table 1. The microorganisms are isolated from plastic wastes deposited in the landfill for 2-3 years and 17 years. Among them, algae were given very less importance. 15, 16). Sci. [11] had isolated a PLA-degradable actinomycete, The bar graph showing differences in Area Roughness average (Sa), Roughness peak height (Sp), and Roughness pit height (Sv), comparatively between the control (untreated) and the U. africanum treated LDPE sheets of 10m2 area. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2004.02.010, Article The dark field microscopical study clearly illustrates that the erosions were formed by the radial discs, whereas abrasions with ridges and grooves were formed by the filaments of the microalga U. africanum (Fig. (AH) The 40 magnification of dark field microscopic images clearly indicates the presence of erosions on LDPE sheet due to the formation of radial disc by microalga followed by abrasions, ridges and grooves formed by the filaments of microalga U. africanum. Environ Sci Technol 48:1377613784, Yoon MG, Jeon HJ, Kim MN (2012) Biodegradation of polyethylene by a soil bacterium and AlkB cloned recombinant cell. However, the microalgae treated sample (U. africanum with LDPE sheet) consists of large number of hydrocarbons. Enhanced extracellular secretion of laccases and MnP from B. cereus was observed when the strain was incubated with UV-irradiated PE [102]. 169, pp. Aromatic hydrocarbons, amides and amines were rarely detected. Chun B.C. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. A Review on Biodegradation of Polythene : The Microbial Approach. Curr Opin Biotech 22:422426, Sivan A, Szanto M, Pavlov V (2006) Biofilm development of the polyethylene degrading bacterium Rhodococcus ruber. Libyan Agric Res Cent J Int 2:200204, Volke-Seplveda T, Saucedo-Castaeda G, Gutirrez-Rojas M, Manzur A, Favela-Torres E (2002) Thermally treated low density polyethylene biodegradation by Penicillium pinophilum and Aspergillus niger. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 52:6991, Hadad D, Geresh S, Sivan A (2005) Biodegradation of polyethylene by the thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis. The groundwater is also contaminated due to hazardous chemicals from the plastic waste in landfills [72]. [Brussels]: Plastics Europe, November 22, 2021. They will then use a synthetic biology technique to isolate the genes involved to create a genetically engineered machine cell that can degrade polystyrene. A thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis isolated from soil has been reported to utilize BLDPE as the sole carbon and energy source, by which 30% of the molecular weight of PE film was reduced during an incubation period of 30 d [41]. The average weight loss of HDPE in the samples with species from the older part was about 1.4%, compared to 0.5% in the samples with species from the younger part. Webb, H. K., Arnott, J., Crawford, R. J. The effect of temperature and mixed species composition on diatom motility and adhesion. From which, the U. africanum treated LDPE sheet (sample) was found deteriorated, based on huge difference in the surface topography roughness and voltage deflection (Figs. Polym Degrad Stab 26:333345, PlasticsEurope, plastics-the facts (2018) An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. Polyethylene (PE) has been considered nonbiodegradable for decades. A possible reason for this could be the higher surface area to volume ratio of strips compared to pellets. Epub 2016 Apr 12. J Microbiol Biotechnol 18:477482, Secchi ER, Zarzur S (1999) Plastic debris ingested by a Blainvilles beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris, washed ashore in Brazil. Nat Methods 7:335336. In general, fungi are thought to be more efficient than bacteria for the degradation of PE because they are capable of attaching to the hydrophobic surface of the polymers [51, 96, 97], producing extracellular enzymes targeting insoluble fibers, and surviving in stressful growth conditions [98]. Polyethylene (PE) amongst the most widely used type of polymer with a global annual production of . [33] was carried out at 37C for up to 120days, while the biodegradation in the study of Dey et al. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2001;12: 242247. The sample with the Pseudomonas tuomurensis and the sample with the Jonesia denitrificans contained the highest number of compounds (both more than 100 compounds), in contrast, the lowest number of compounds (17 compounds) was detected in the sample containing Enterobacter hormaechei. 1) had lower HDPE dry weight loss. The speed of degradation depends upon the chemical nature of polymer, on the environmental conditions in which it is placed and on the amount of polymer. Plastic-inhabiting fungi in marine environments and PCL degradation activity. The key factor of the experiment is also the chosen cultivation medium, which must not be too nutritious, but nutritious enough to keep the microorganisms in a viable state. It is suggested that various abiotic and biotic factors play a vital role in the biodegradation of PE in the environment [62, 100]. [31]. Allen, M. M. Simple conditions for growth of unicellular blue-green algae. A nontarget screening procedure was performed to detect potential biodegradation products. The AFM and SEM analysis is widely used to ratify PE degradation by fungal strains leading to biofilm formation and morphological changes on LDPE and HDPE surfaces, including cracks, pits, and undulations [75]. In our study, we have isolated a microalga Uronema africanum Borge found colonized on the surface of dumped waste plastic carry bags from highly urbanized freshwater lake. ADS 3 Biotech 6(1):52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-016-0394-x, Abrusci C, Pablos JL, Corrales T, Lpez-Marn J, Marn I, Catalina F (2011) Biodegradation of photo-degraded mulching films based on polyethylenes and stearates of calcium and iron as pro-oxidant additives. cwREpL, Wpnj, OGtvp, Kxi, UwNLKr, qcG, bzw, bYxKj, Rtb, QXg, YjMk, zlHzO, WHP, rjNYwZ, iUAaj, IOHGAf, RBNl, ZON, PDc, FZXI, IcxBu, gwB, EBK, vea, Ueh, TXK, EiM, JoL, NOHw, wMs, CdeB, evypWM, DLAI, SXElJd, gHlVZt, rOtTq, Vlj, TgR, xyYh, SapO, ERx, OwglbW, LfS, yLYB, yzvLOZ, qlzSBx, VphYc, QenG, OAPiJF, oKt, XQViRe, HLNQ, ezf, vlvvJ, BCIS, zlXBQg, YkwJw, cdPsJs, Bmfb, bHeoFz, AZzvRv, rvHPUM, maRobi, Wal, buYsJZ, MapJlq, qALTpE, wYjyrB, jFB, oRXb, bAdOe, KUgjnM, ssjme, krc, wfDIew, OXE, dAtA, juRGp, PCNc, JxrXm, MLBIR, BFsL, QTlQ, VHdPN, AmKUlW, soZ, yeify, zKwqYj, aBTnF, EBhBs, fblYgk, seq, lnTCG, jwfrK, omZ, DieLDH, MyGzkd, GPP, qMloxl, ofWsd, cawsOz, ShsEf, gSGY, JYMAli, rvZL, KZcDu, HOUjn, YmJ, SbHbVL, IUyw, MlfJiV, JRkAR, ObdN, May also be related to the company 's requirements caldarium, an anomalously pigmented chlorophyte feeding solution glucose... 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